经济学家凯恩斯

强国之心

Of course. Here is a detailed introduction to the life and achievements of John Maynard Keynes, presented in English.

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### John Maynard Keynes: The Economist Who Revolutionized Economics and Policy

John Maynard Keynes (1883-1946) was a British economist whose radical ideas fundamentally reshaped modern economics and the economic policies of governments worldwide. He is arguably the most influential economist of the 20th century.

#### Early Life and Intellectual Formation

* **Privileged Background:** Born into an academic and intellectually vibrant family in Cambridge, England. His father, John Neville Keynes, was a renowned economist and logician, and his mother was a social reformer and the first female mayor of Cambridge.

* **Elite Education:** Educated at Eton College and King's College, Cambridge, where he studied mathematics. At Cambridge, he was exposed to the philosophical circle led by G.E. Moore and became a central member of the **Bloomsbury Group**, a collective of intellectuals, writers, and artists. This environment cultivated his confidence, wit, and interdisciplinary approach to problems.

* **Civil Service:** After university, he worked briefly in the India Office of the British Civil Service, which sparked his interest in money and finance, leading to his first major book, *Indian Currency and Finance* (1913).

#### Key Career Moments and Achievements

**1. The Critique of Versailles and Rise to Public Prominence**

After World War I, Keynes served as the principal representative of the British Treasury at the Versailles Peace Conference. He resigned in protest over the crushing war reparations imposed on Germany. In his scathing and brilliantly written book, ***The Economic Consequences of the Peace* (1919)**, he argued that the vindictive treaty would lead to economic collapse and future instability in Europe. His predictions proved tragically accurate, and the book made him an international celebrity.

**2. The Battle Against the Gold Standard**

Keynes was a fierce critic of Britain's decision to return to the Gold Standard at its pre-war parity in 1925. In his pamphlet *The Economic Consequences of Mr. Churchill*, he argued that the overvalued Pound Sterling would cripple British exports and lead to mass unemployment. Again, he was correct, establishing his reputation as a penetrating and practical economic analyst.

**3. *The General Theory of Employment, Interest and Money* (1936) - His Magnum Opus**

This book was his revolutionary masterpiece, written as a direct response to the inability of classical economics to explain or cure the **Great Depression**. Its core achievements include:

* **Overturning Classical Economics:** He systematically dismantled the classical idea that market economies are self-correcting and automatically tend towards full employment.

* **The Principle of Effective Demand:** He argued that the primary driver of an economy is not supply, but **aggregate demand**—the total spending by consumers, businesses, and the government. If effective demand is insufficient, firms won't produce at full capacity, leading to prolonged and involuntary unemployment.

* **The Role of Government:** This was his most profound and policy-relevant insight. To combat recessions and depressions, he advocated for active **government intervention**. When private demand falls, the government should run budget deficits by increasing public spending and/or cutting taxes to boost aggregate demand and restore full employment. This became known as **"counter-cyclical fiscal policy."**

* **Key Concepts Introduced:**

* **The Multiplier Effect:** A small increase in investment or government spending can lead to a larger final increase in national income.

While the final system was a compromise with the American plan (from Harry Dexter White), its establishment was a monumental achievement in international economic cooperation, largely inspired by Keynes's vision to avoid the chaotic, competitive devaluations of the 1930s.

#### Personal Life and Legacy

Keynes was a man of immense range. He was a prolific writer, a successful speculator (managing the funds of King's College and amassing a personal fortune), a patron of the arts, and married to the famous Russian ballerina Lydia Lopokova.

He died of a heart attack in 1946, but his legacy is immense. **"Keynesian Economics"** became the dominant economic paradigm in Western countries for decades, guiding policy through the post-war economic boom. The term is now synonymous with the active use of fiscal and monetary policy to manage the business cycle. Even today, during major economic crises (like the 2008-09 Financial Crisis and the COVID-19 pandemic), governments instinctively turn to Keynesian measures—massive fiscal stimulus—to support aggregate demand, a powerful testament to the enduring influence of John Maynard Keynes.

* **Liquidity Preference:** The demand for money as an asset, which determines interest rates.

* **Animal Spirits:** The role of investors' innate optimism, pessimism, and uncertainty in driving business cycles, challenging the notion of purely rational decision-making.

* **Paradox of Thrift:** While saving is good for an individual, if everyone tries to save more during a recession, it can reduce aggregate demand and overall savings in the economy.

**4. Architect of the Post-War Economic Order**

During World War II, Keynes returned to the Treasury to advise on wartime finance. His greatest late-career achievement was his central role in designing the post-war international financial system. At the **Bretton Woods Conference** in 1944, he was the leading intellectual force behind the creation of two key institutions:

* The **International Monetary Fund (IMF)**, to provide short-term financial assistance to countries with balance-of-payments problems.

* The **International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (World Bank)**, to provide long-term loans for post-war reconstruction and development.